Author's Note: This book is currently out of print. It is reproduced here from the author's original manuscript and does not reflect the editing and revisions by the publisher - McGraw-Hill. The illustrations have been been scanned from a published copy of the book. This electronic version and its illustrations are copyright to both McGraw-Hill and the author Martin Modell, and as such may not be copied or reproduced in any manner. This text is posted for and its contents may be used for educational purposes - limited portions may be cited. Any portions of the content thus cited must contain the copyright information to be found at the bottom of each chapter and at the bottom of this page

• Preface to the first edition
• Preface to the second edition
• Glossary of terms and concepts
• About the Author

Part I - Tools and Techniques

I know that you believe you understand what you think I said,
but I am not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant

• Chapter 1 - What is Systems Analysis?
  
  
  Why Systems Analysis?
  What Is a System?
  What Is a Systems Analyst?
  The Roles of the Systems Analyst
  Concerns of the Systems Analyst
  Information Systems Analysis as a Task of Data Processing
  Information Systems Projects Categorized by Scope
  Business Systems Projects as a Method of Organizational Change
  Business Process Reengineering
  Total Quality Management
  The Physician's Analogy
  
  
• Chapter 2 - Various types of Information Systems Projects
  
  
  Reasons For Initiating Information Systems Analysis Projects
  The Three Types of Systems Analysis Projects
  The Organization as a Multilevel Entity
  The Four Stages of EDP Growth
  Operational versus Informational Systems
  Personal, Departmental and Corporate Systems
  
  
• Chapter 3 - The Systems Life Cycle Methodology
  
  
  What Is a System development Life Cycle?
  The Purpose of a Methodology
  The Need for a Methodology
  Methodology
  System Development Life Cycle Phases
  Project Initiation
  Reviews
  Five phases of the Business Process Reengineering life cycle
  Cost-Benefit Analysis
  Project Development Costs
  User and Project Implementation Costs
  
  
• Chapter 4 - System Development Life Cycyle Analysis
  
  
  Analysis
  Multiple Levels of Analysis
  Three-Phase Approach to Analysis
  Validation of the Analysis
  Walk-Throughs
  Input/Output Validation
  Data Source to Use
  
  
• Chapter 5 - Effects of Prior Automation: Legacy Systems
  
  
  Basic Systems - Wholly Manual
  Intermediate Systems - Partially Manual And Partially Automated
  Mature Systems - Fully Automated
  Effects Of Prior Automation
  Forms Of Reautomation
  
  
• Chapter 6 - Project Planning
  
  
  Project Planning
  Work Breakdowns Structures (WBS)
  Planning Methods
  Pert
  CPM
  Gantt
  Function Point Analysis
  
  
• Chapter 7 - The Interview and Other Data Gathering Methods
  
  
  What Is an Interview?
  Types of Interviews
  Interviewing Components
  What Are the Goals of the Interview?
  Interviewing Guidelines
  Dos and Don'ts of Interviewing
  Who to Interview
  The Need for Documentation
  Functions of Documentation
  Documenting the Interview
  Dos and Don'ts of Documentation
  Report Format Style Guidelines
  Non-Interview Data Gathering Methods
  Joint Applications Design (JAD) and Joint Requirements Analysis (JRA)
  Prototyping
  
  
• Chapter 8 - The Data Dictionary
  
  
  Introduction
  Why a Dictionary?
  What Is Data Administration?
  Dictionary Design
  Information Systems Components
  Business Systems Components
  Data and Process Model Components
  How Does a Dictionary Function?
  How Can the Dictionary Assist the Analysis Function?
  Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and Repositories
  
  
• Chapter 9 - The Entity Relationship Approach
  
  
  The Entity-Relationship Approach
  Entity-Relationship Analysis
  Classification Analysis
  Categorization as a fundamental process
  Classification of Entities
  Types, Subtypes and Groups
  Entity Families
  Active versus Passive Entities
  Process Control Entities
  Entity Definition
  Entity Family versus Entity Group Reference
  Distinguishing between Entities (Entity Roles)
  Data Acquisition and Retention
  Describing Process Control Entities
  
  
• Chapter 10 - Modeling and Diagramming techniques
  
  
  Modeling and Diagramming Techniques
  The Entity-Relationship Model
  The Enterprise Level
  The Entity-Relationship Level
  The Entity-Relationship-Attribute Level
  The Entity-Relationship-Attribute-Data Level
  Construction of an Entity-Relationship Diagram
  Documentation of the Model
  Data Flow Diagrams
  Flowchart Diagrams
  Hierarchic Process Diagrams
  IDEF Diagrams

Part II - Analysis

Remember:
The more things change the more they remain the same.
Yet, the only thing constant in life is change

• Chapter 11 - Business Knowledge
  

  What Is Business Knowledge?
  Exceptions and Rules
  What If Games
  Symptoms and Causes

  
  
• Chapter 12 - Functional Analysis
  
  
  What Is a Function?
  Two Categories of Business Functions
  Business Function Analysis
  Some Questions to Be Asked during Functional Analysis
  Business Function Analysis Documentation
  User Personal Computer/Workstations
  Additional Documentation to Include, If Available
  The Need for a Business Function Model
  The Business Life Cycle Matrix
  Developing the Functional Model
  
  
• Chapter 13 - Process Analysis
  
  
  What Is a Business Process?
  Business Process Analysis
  Some Questions to Be Asked during Process Analysis
  Business Process Analysis Documentation
  User Specific Interview Questions
  User Applications
  Additional Documentation to Be Included, If Available
  The Need for Business Process Models
  Business Process Entities versus Processes
  Process Entity-Relationship Models
  Guidelines for Developing a Process Model
  
  
• Chapter 14 - Activity or Task Analysis
  
  
  What Is a Task?
  Business Task Analysis
  Some Questions to Be Asked during Task Analysis
  Task Modeling
  Data Event Modeling
  Deductive and Inductive Development
  Data Actions
  Data Action Symbols
  Data Access Sequence
  Types of Data Events
  Relationship to Data Entity Time Line
  Data Event Independence
  Data Event Sources
  Data Event triggers
  Data Event Trigger Contents
  Data Event Frames of reference
  Sequential data Access
  Data Event Assumptions
  Separation of Data Event Types
  
  
• Chapter 15 - Data Analysis
  
  
  What Is Data Analysis?
  What is Data Event Analysis?
  What is Transaction Analysis?
  What is Document and Forms Analysis?
  Data Analysis Questions

Part III - Validation

MURPHY'S LAWS

• The most important piece of information in any plan, or document, stands the greatest chance of being left out.
• The most important person, piece of material, or piece of information is the one that's missing.
• Things that cannot possibly be done in the wrong order will be.
• In any collection of data, the part that is most obviously correct and does not need checking--is the mistake.
• The error detection and correction capabilities of any system will serve as the key to understanding the type of error which the system cannot handle.
• Undetectable errors are infinite in variety, in contrast to detectable errors, which, by definition, are limited
• Nothing is ever as simple as it seems.
  
  
• Chapter 16 - Valiating the Analytial results
  
  
  Validating the Analysis
  Walk Throughs
  Input/Output Validation
  Data-Source-to-Use Validation
  Consistency Analysis
  Level-to-Level Consistency
  Carrier-to-Data Consistency
  Process-to-Process Consistency
  Other Analytical Techniques
  Zero-Based Analysis
  Data Event Analysis
  Methods and Procedures Analysis
  General to Specific Analysis
  
  
• Chapter 17 - Examination and Study
  
  
  Evaluation Of Existing Systems Components
  Level to Level Evaluation
  Carrier to Data Evaluation
  Process to Process Evaluation
  Zero-based Evaluation
  Problem Identification
  Systems Design Requirements Documentation
  Prioritization Of Changes
  Dependency ranking
  Synergy or Impact/Benefit Ranking
  Cost Benefit Ranking
  Cost-Benefit Ranking
  Make Versus Buy Decisions
  Cost-Benefit Analysis
  Project Development Costs
  User And Project Implementation Costs
  Benefits
  Additional Analysis Techniques
  Risk Identification and Mitigation
  Four Steps of Risk Management
  Risk Issues

The objective of all dedicated employees should be to thoroughly analyze all situations,
anticipate all problems prior to their occurrence,
have answers for these problems,
and move swiftly to solve these problems when called upon....
However, when you are up to your ears in alligators,
it is difficult to remind yourself that your initial objective was to drain the swamp.

• Chapter 18 - Manual and Automated Systems Examinations
  
  
  Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Analysis
  On-Line versus Batch Systems
  Issues Affecting the On-Line versus Batch Decision
  Mainframe, Mini, and Micro Systems
  Micro, Mini, or Mainframe Issues
  Integrated Systems versus Stand-Alone
  Make-versus-Buy Decisions
  Make-versus-Buy Issues
  Package Evaluation and Selection
  Examining the Buy Option
  
  
• Chapter 19 - Database Considerations
  
  
  What Is a Database?
  Centralized versus Decentralized Data Bases
  Management Levels
  Replication of Data
  The Centralized Database Environment
  The Decentralized Database Environment
  Common Database Types
  A Comparison of DBMS Data Structure Options
  DBMS Selection Criteria for Mainframe Systems
  Process-directed Analytical Methodology
  Data-directed Analytical Methodology
  User Views
  Data-directed Analysis and the Entity-Relationship Approach
  Data Administration
  Database Administration
  
  
• Chapter 20 - Client/Server Considerations
  
  
  The Changing Micro Environment
  Microcomputer Systems
  Network communications
  Developer Tool Kits
  Table-driven or Rules-driven Applications
  Network communication issues:
  Client server databases:
  Client Server Issues
  Facilities Management and Outsourcing
  
  
• Chapter 21 - Controls, Auditing and Security Analysis
  
  
  Security
  What Is Security?
  Security Analysis
  Physical Access Security
  Personal Computer Security
  System Administration
  Controls
  Auditing and Auditability
  The Concept of Time
  Configuration management
  Change Management
  Disaster/Emergency Preparedness

Part V - Applications

Laws of Project Management

1. No major project is ever installed on time, within budget, with the same staff that started it. Yours will not be the first.
2. Projects progress quickly until they become 90 percent complete; they then remain at 90 percent complete forever.
3. One advantage of fuzzy project objectives is that they let you avoid the embarrassment of estimating the corresponding costs.
   1. When things are going well, something will go wrong.
   2. When things just can't get any worse, they will.
   3. When things appear to be going better, you have overlooked something.
4. If project content is allowed to change freely, the rate of change will exceed the rate of progress.
5. No system is ever completely debugged: Attempts to debug a system inevitably introduce new bugs that are even harder to find.
6. A carelessly planned project will take three times longer to complete than expected, a carefully planned project will take only twice as long.
7. Project teams detest progress reporting because it vividly manifests their lack of progress.

• Chapter 22 - Basic Types of Systems Projects
  
  
  The Typical Business Flow
  Order Processing
  Inventory
  Customer Service
  Accounts Payable and Accounts Receivable
  General Ledger
  Marketing and Sales
  Payroll and Personnel
  Time and Attendance Collection Systems
  Automation of Routine Request for Action forms
  
  
• Chapter 23 - Case Study Illustrations
  
  
  Cases
  Notes and Guidelines on Case Study Use
  Apex Biscuit Company
  National Association for the Advancement of Data Processing
  System for Centralized Library Order Processing Services (SYCLOPS)
  Studentext Publishing Company
  The Last National Bank and Trust Company
  Verylarge Full Service Brokerage Company
  
  

A Professional's Guide to Systems Analysis, Second Edition
Written by Martin E. Modell
Copyright © 2007 Martin E. Modell
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the author.